Malthusian theory of population free essay sample

Thomas Malthus Theory of Population that was proposed more than two centuries ago, foretold the problems of food shortage that the world is facing today, due to uncontrolled increase in population. Thomas Robert Malthus was a British economist and a demographer, whose famous Theory of Population highlighted the potential dangers of overpopulation. Malthus put forth his ideas in six editions of his famous treatise An Essay on the Principle of Population. His thinking took shape under the influence of the optimistic ideas of his father and his friends especially Rousseau, for future improvement of the society. In the first edition of his treatise, Malthus put forth his views that opposed the belief of scholars like Marquis de Condorcet and William Godwin who were optimistic about population growth in England. During the Industrial Revolution, England experienced a steep increase in its population. In his book The Enquirer, William Godwin promoted population growth as a means for human beings to attain equality. We will write a custom essay sample on Malthusian theory of population or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page According to him, an increased population would create more wealth that would provide food for the whole humanity. Scholars of such school of thought believed that, both man and society could be made perfect. In contrast to this viewpoint, Malthus interpreted overpopulation as an evil that would reduce the amount of food available per person. The Theory: In his famous treatise An Essay on the Principles of Population, Malthus stated that, the populations of the world would increase in geometric proportions while the food resources available for them would increase only in arithmetic proportions. In simple words, if human population was allowed to increase in an uncontrolled way, then the number of people would increase at a faster rate than the food supply. A point would come when human population would reach the limit up to which food sources could not support it. Any further increase would lead to population crash caused by natural phenomena like famine or disease. According to him, human society could never be perfected. He believed that man is a lazy animal, who would lead a satisfied life and procreate as long as his family was well fed. However, as soon as human population would feel constraints in food supply due to increase in population, he would again work hard to provide enough for his family. This might lead to an increase in agricultural production to provide for all, but at the same time man would be back to his complacent stage, where all his needs would be fulfilled. This would start the cycle of overpopulation and food shortage, all over again. Having been a clergy, Malthus validated his theory on moral grounds that suffering was a way of making human beings realize the virtues of hard work and moral behavior. Such kind of suffering due to overpopulation and limited food supply was inevitable. Assumptions: Malthus took into account two main assumptions: †¢Food is an essential component for human existence. †¢Humans have the basic urge to multiply. Explanation: Malthus theory was based on the assumption that the power of population to multiply is much greater than the power of the earth to provide subsistence for man. In his own words passion between the sexes is an inevitable phenomenon, hence, when unchecked, population would grow at such a high rate that it would outstrip food supply. According to him, disease, food shortage and death due to starvation, were natures way to control population. He proposed that human beings adopt measures like infanticide, abortion, delay in marriage and strict following of celibacy to check population growth. Relation between Population, Wages and Inflation: Malthus described the whole scenario as a vicious cycle of population growth and its effects. He proposed that the boom in population will result into excess of labor force ready to work at the available wage rate, giving them the income to buy food for their family. This will lead to an increase in the overall demand for food outstripping its supply. Hence, the prices will rise and inflation will set in. This inflationary pressure will worsen the situation of the already distressed poor section of the society leaving the riches unaffected. The poor will work more to improve their situation and will also consider reducing the population growth so that they have less mouths to feed. However, this will only last till the population equals the food supply and the inflation ceases; after which, overall standard of living will rise and so will the population explosion reaching the same point, hence called the vicious cycle. Proposed Solutions: In his first edition of the essay, Malthus proposed two main solutions to the problem of population explosion, namely: †¢Positive Check This method results in increase in death rate. He described this as Gods way of restoring the Natural Order. It includes famines, hunger, epidemics, war and other natural miseries which cause large-scale deaths. Although it helps in controlling the population growth, it brings with it widespread misery and pain. Hence, it is not regarded as an ideal solution to population problem. †¢Preventive or Negative Check This method refers to human effort in reducing the birth rate. It is more practically and logically applicable. Abortion, prostitution, postponement of marriage, birth control and celibacy are few measures that were advised to be strictly followed in order to help solve the problem. In his second edition of the same essay, Malthus laid more emphasis on: Moral Restraint: This is regarded as a universally applicable solution keeping up with the ideologies of virtue, economic gain and social improvement. According to this principle, one should refrain from marriage till the time he is capable of supporting a family with food, clothing and shelter. Until then he should follow strict celibacy. In the words of Geoffrey Gilbert, He (Malthus) went so far as to claim that moral restraint on a wide scale was the best means indeed, the only means of easing the poverty of the lower classes. Impact: Malthus theory had great influence on both Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace, who are the co-founders of the modern evolutionary theory. In his own words Darwin acknowledged, that he was already aware of the struggle for existence among different species of plants and animals. However, it was only after he read Malthus work, he realized that animals in their struggle to survive retained the favorable features that would help them adjust to the environment, and lost those that were of no use to them. Thus, the Theory of Natural Selection was born. By the end of the 19th Century, when living standards improved and birth rates dropped in the Western countries, concerns of overpopulation became irrelevant. However, in underdeveloped countries which have agrarian economies, Malthus theory often finds credibility. Criticism: Some critics like Karl Marx, argued that Malthus failed to recognize the potential of human population to increase food supply. He is accused by many to have failed to comprehend mans ability to use science and technology to increase food supply to meet the needs of an increasing population. Thinkers from the field of social sciences have criticized Malthus for his belief that the human society could never be made perfect. He opposed all political, social and economic reforms that did not aim at controlling birth rate. His own methods of checking population growth were criticized for being impractical. Malthus was opposed to the Poor Laws popular in England, which provided relief to the people who qualified as poor under the laws. According to him, such charity would provide only short-term relief to them and let the poor remain in their state of financial distress. This thought of Malthus was viewed as misanthropic. From his writings, some have interpreted Malthus as a rigid and pessimistic individual. However, he is also viewed by some as a pragmatic thinker, who put a check on the unbridled enthusiasm of some who viewed increase in population as a means of progress.

Management systems in Marks and Spencers.

Management systems in Marks and Spencers. Systems For Management2.0 IntroductionThe organisation I have chosen to base my assignment on is Marks Spencer plc. Marks Spencer plc is a very large retailer of food and clothes, so I have decided to base this report on one particular branch that is based in Birmingham.Marks Spencer is one of the UK's leading retailers of clothes, food, home products and financial services. 10 million people shop with them each week in over 375 stores. In addition they have 155 stores managed under franchise in 28 territories mostly in Europe, the Middle East, Asia and the Far East, stores in the Republic of Ireland, nine wholly owned stores in Hong Kong and they own the US supermarket group, Kings Super Markets.The company values of quality, value, service, innovation and trust are not new - they are the principles on which the business was founded.English: Marks and Spencer store, Birmingham High ...Marks Spencer was first found in 1884, this was when Michael Marks formed a partnership with To m Spencer. In 1908 Michael and Tom registered the St. Michael trademark. Since 1908 the partners opened many stores in England and other countries.As one of the UK's leading retailers, Marks Spencer have annual sales in excess of $8 billion. The company employ's more than 60,000 people worldwide, operate more than 400 stores in 28 countries, and serve tens of millions of customers every week.The company's customers are people of middle to upper class. Regular customers at Marks Spencer are pensioners, these people don't mind paying vast amounts of money for their food and clothes.Marks Spencer attracts customers who have well paid jobs and that are of upper class. The company's customers are well off because they have good jobs and like what the company have...

The US Federal Minimum Wage

The US Federal Minimum Wage What is the current U.S. federal minimum wage? The answer to that question can be trickier than you might think.While the current US federal minimum wage was last set at $7.25 per hour on July 24, 2009, your age, type of employment, even where you live can alter the legal minimum hourly wage your employer is required to pay. What is the  Federal Minimum Wage Law? The federal minimum wage is established by and regulated under the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (the FLSA). In its final form, the act applied to industries whose combined employment represented only about one-fifth of the US labor force. In these industries, it banned oppressive child labor and set the minimum hourly wage at 25 cents, and the maximum workweek at 44 hours. Who Must Pay the Federal Minimum Wage? Today, the minimum wage law (the FLSA) applies to employees of enterprises that do at least $500,000 in business a year. It also applies to employees of smaller firms if the employees are engaged in interstate commerce or in the production of goods for commerce, such as employees who work in transportation or communications or who regularly use the mails or telephones for interstate communications. It also applies to employees of federal, state or local government agencies, hospitals and schools, and it generally applies to domestic workers. Details of the Federal Minimum Wage The following details apply only to the the federal minimum wage, your state may have its own minimum wage rates and laws. In cases where state minimum wage rates differ with the federal rate, the higher minimum wage rate always applies.Current Federal Minimum Wage: $7.25 per hour (as of July 24, 2009) may vary under the following conditions: Younger Workers: If you are under 20 years of age, you may be paid as little as $4.25 per hour during your first 90 consecutive calendar days of employment. Students, Apprentices and the Disabled: Certain full-time students, student learners, apprentices, and workers with disabilities may be paid less than the minimum wage under special certificates issued by the US Department of Labor. Workers Who Earn Tips: Employers who allow workers to keep tips must pay a cash minimum wage of at least $2.13 per hour IF they claim a tip credit against their federal minimum wage obligation of $7.25 per hour. In other words, if your tips plus cash wages do not equal at least $7.25 per hour, your employer must make up the difference. Overtime Pay: Federal law requires payment of at least 1-and-1/2 times your regular rate of pay for all hours worked over 40 in a workweek. Child Labor: An employee must be at least 16 years old to work in most non-farm jobs and at least 18 to work in non-farm jobs declared hazardous by the Secretary of Labor.Persons 14 and 15 years old are allowed to work before or after school in some non-manufacturing, non-mining and non-hazardous jobs IF: They work no more than - 3 hours on a school day or 18 hours in a school week; 8 hours on a non-school day or 40 hours in a non-school week. Work may not begin before 7 a.m. or end after 7 p.m., except from June 1 through Labor Day, when evening hours are extended to 9 p.m. Different rules apply in agricultural employment. Other Special Exemptions: Under the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (FLSA), executive, administrative, professional, and outside sales employees are exempted from the minimum wage and overtime requirements of the FLSA, provided they meet certain tests regarding job duties and responsibilities and are compensated on a salary basis. Minimum Wages in the States By law, states are allowed to establish their own minimum wages and regulations. However, anytime the state minimum wage differs from the federal minimum wage, the higher rate applies. For specifics and updates on the minimum wages and regulations in all 50 states and the District of Columbia, see: Minimum Wage Laws in the States from the U.S. Department of Labor. Enforcement of the Federal Minimum Wage Law The Wage and Hour Division of the U.S. Department of Labor administers and enforces the Fair Labor Standards Act and, thus, the minimum wage with respect to private employment, State and local government employment, and Federal employees of the Library of Congress, U.S. Postal Service, Postal Rate Commission, and the Tennessee Valley Authority. The FLSA is enforced by the U.S. Office of Personnel Management for employees of other Executive Branch agencies, and by the U.S. Congress for covered employees of the Legislative Branch.Special rules apply to state and local government employment involving fire protection and law enforcement activities, volunteer services, and compensatory time off instead of cash overtime pay.For information on enforcement of state minimum wages and other state labor laws, see: State Labor Offices/State Laws, from the US Department of Labor. To Report Suspected Violations Suspected violations are abuses of federal or state minimum wage laws should be reported directly to District Office of the U.S. Wage and Hour Division nearest you. For addresses and phone numbers, see: Wage and Hour Division District Office LocationsFederal law prohibits discriminating against or discharging workers who file a complaint or participate in any proceedings under the Fair Labor Standards Act.

Science and Religion Debate Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Science and Religion Debate - Essay Example Further, as backed philosopher such as Enstein and Aristotle, argued that only two sorts of things could illustrate the starting point of space, time, matter and vitality – either unique protests or brains and abstract articles dont result in impacts, yet psyches do reason impacts. In the film, Craig also asserts that a psyche is the best description for the beginning of the universe because of the outlandish adequacy of science, the underlying structure of nature is numerical – math is material to nature, mathematical items can either be theoretical articles or valuable fiction, either path, and that there is no motivation to want that nature ought to be connected to extract items or fictions. However, people need to understand that a perfect personality that needs people to comprehend nature is a finer demonstration for what we see due to the grandiose tweaking for the presence of wise life. Craig just like Descartes argues that there are two sorts of finely-tuned beg inning conditions because of Cosmological constants amounts which must be set inside a tight go so as to allow shrewd life, demonstrations for this perception and law, risk or configuration. Further, law is rejected on the grounds that they are placed in at the starting or matter – they dont rise up out of make a difference. He challenged Krauss by asserting that the chance must be rejected, in light of the fact that they chances are simply excessively long unless you engage a world-outfit because we dont watch what the world outfit theory predicts that we ought to watch and design is the best illustration for finely-tuned constants and amounts. Therefore, the presence of destination good values and obligations and our knowledge of ethical quality (qualities and obligations) is that it is genuine and occupant on us when somebody goes into a classroom and shoots at guiltless kids, that is impartially off. On naturalism, good values and good obligations

Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 63

Leadership - Essay Example ccording to Zenger and Folkman, the plan action method works when our leadership performances are not encouraging, hence we ought to apply the action plan method to the issue and try to improve our performances. The approach to change the plans suggested by Zenger and Folkman is also known as the Linear Development Model. This model gives the current performance which determines the performance we desire in the future. The future performance gives our customers and those we lead the confidence in our profession and organizations. (Zenger and Folkman, 2009, p. 196) Secondly, we are educated on how we can approach development. The plans used in this case are the linear plans. The book focuses on helping leaders to change from poor performance to better one. The linear plan is a unique perspective that helps us to change and develop our leadership skills for better performance in the organization. However, Zenger and Folkman hit a warning to us trying to apply exceptional changes on explicit competences. This might hinder our leadership improvement as they say (Zenger and Folkman, 2009, p.217). In conclusion, the above plans suggested by Zenger and Folkman, might be effective and useful perspectives in improving our leadership skills. If well applied, the linear plan and the action plan new insights and approaches to better leadership skills which definitely improve the performance of the

Westerns :: essays research papers

Westerns The settlement of the west has prompted storys which have captivated the public throughout this century. More than any other historic event it has been written about in books, magazines and comic books. Screen writers are no exception, it has been the most popular subject of motion pictures from their inception. It's nearness in history is one of the most important reasons for it's success. Soon after the west's settlement, motion pictures became popular. Parents and grandparents were telling stories that were made even more real by the events seen on the big screen. A person could much more easily imagine events occuring within the past 50 years or so as compared to 150 years with the revolution. This nearness in history gave stories of the west a realistic appeal for the masses. With the turn of the century came the industrial revolution. At this time the average person's life changed radically. People now became "factory workers," clocking in and leaving their brains at the door. The glamour offered by these stories gave the majority of people a short escape from the everyday "grind." People were able to ride off into the sunset for a few hours becoming a rugged individual who makes a difference as opposed to the faceless body that may turn one screw hour after hour. Storylines variety was endless for the west's story tellers. Any story could be written and placed as a western. The love interest, hated villian and old enemy all fit in a western. If a writer did not want to take the time to develop an enemy, one was readily available in the native americans. The wests stories can be varied by switching points of view as

Geographical Discoveries

Great geographical discoveries – a popular term geographical discoveries made at the turn of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, in particular: circumnavigation Cape of Good Hope by Diaz (1488), the discovery of America by Columbus (1492), and then the conquest, trip [[Vasco da Gama | to India (1498) and the first trip around the world, Magellan (1519-1522). These events triggered a further voyages of discovery and contributed to a significant widening of the geographical horizon of Europeans. Expedition of Christopher Columbus Rulers of Spain, they realized that they begin to lose the distance to Portugal, which definitely lead the quantity organized expeditions. But so far Spain was busy fighting with the Arabs, who defended her at the last stronghold – Grenada. When in 1492 the Saracens were expelled from the Iberian peninsula, Ferdinand and Isabella agreed to finance the expedition, which presented them with a description of the Genoese Christopher Columbus. The traveler asked the first king of Portugal. Presented a plan aimed at shipping on the west and in accordance with the map of Ptolemy, after crossing the Atlantic to reach Asia. However, not met with favor. With the same plan, asked the king of Spain. Under the agreement, written by Columbus from the royal couple: Columbus was appointed for life admiral, governor and viceroy of the newly discovered lands. 1 / 10 of income from the newly discovered land was to belong to Columbus, the rest of the royal treasury. In return, Columbus promised to cover 1 / 8 the cost of the expedition. The rest covered the royal couple. And the expedition of Christopher Columbus (1492-1493) The expedition set sail on August 3, 1492 from the port of Palos de la Frontera. The first stage of the journey were previously discovered the Canary Islands, then Columbus sailed along the 28 parallel to the west. The crew, consisting of about 90 people after 3 weeks of shipping began to rebel, when it turned out that you can not see land. 29. 09. Columbus in his diary wrote that it was rebellion. 11. 10. Columbus erected ultimatum – if within 24 hours will not see the land has ordered outflow. Fortunately for Kolumba12 October after three months of the expedition, when the entire crew of the ship was already tired and actually threatened Columbus's death, Juan Rodriguez Bermejo saw the crow's nest land. The expedition landed on the island probably Watling (called Guanahani by the Indians), a small island group of the Bahamas. In the natives pointed gold ornaments. Interviewed about their origin indicated the direction to the south. Judging from this that lies to the north of the mainland, Columbus chose a new course to the southwest. Indians called the island's inhabitants. October 28 Columbus arrived in Cuba, then on December 6 found another island of Haiti / Hispaniola and the smaller islands, which he called Isabella and Fernandina in honor of the royal couple. Then there was a crisis – in late January and February turned out that the admiral ship sank and the Santa Maria, Columbus ordered the return to their homeland. In March 1493, two ships returned to Palos. Second expedition of Christopher Columbus (1493 – 1494) September 25, 1493, the expedition set off another. This time the expedition better equipped, numbering more ships (about 15, the number of crew: about 1750). The expedition lasted 1. 5 years. This time, Columbus chose a more southern route, and thus reached land in the area of the Lesser Antilles. Subsequently discovered the island of Dominica, Marie – Galante, Guadeloupe, Antigua and Puerto Rico. Nov. 22 Columbus arrived in Haiti again, to see that the people left there, no one survived. How domyslono, all perished in the struggle with the natives. In the longer journey Columbus sailed along the southern coast of Cuba and discovered Jamaica. However, the absolute gggaaaTymczasem proceeding to Columbus alienated a large part of his crew. Discouraged many hardships and lack of legendary riches separated themselves from the trip and started searching on your own. Others returned to Spain, choking many complaints on Columbus. Influenced by the enemies of Columbus postulated to take privileges granted to him earlier, and in his place appointed royal governor of the newly discovered lands. In this situation, Columbus on March 19 headed back to Spain, where he arrived June 11. At the court managed to clear himself of the charges against him, obtained a confirmation of earlier privileges and the promise of organizing the next, the third expedition. Third expedition of Christopher Columbus (1498 – 1500) Another, already the third expedition took place in 1498 on her organization had to wait so much, because it failed to fully restore confidence in what it darzono. In fact, only during this expedition, Christopher Columbus saw the mainland. It was South America, but that's when fate turned away from Columbus. Columbus autocratic favor of his people, in particular his son – Diego. She came to the undoubted frustration at the lack of major economic successes and difficulties expeditions in relations with the natives. Just as during the second expedition, news arrived of the problems to the crown. Meanwhile, it was decided to act more decisively. In June 1500 sent to the west of Francis Bobadilla, which were endowed with wide powers of attorney. After reviewing the situation in Haiti, he ordered arrest of Columbus and his son, and shackled to send them to Spain. At the Columbus site again managed to clear themselves of charges and return to the graces of the royal pair. The result was a fourth and last expedition of Columbus to America. IV expedition of Christopher Columbus (1502 -1504) May 9, 1502 flotilla of four ships and 150 crew company Columbus went west again. This time the situation was urgent. In the meantime, Vasco da Gama discovered the route to India around the African continent. Columbus urgently needed was a success proving that the road to the west is shorter, more comfortable and safer. Columbus's intention was to find the transition to water, which eventually took him to lead India. He expected to go to the west of Cuba. There was headed in his expedition. Flowing in this direction reached the coasts of Honduras and the Mosquito Coast on the east coast of Nicaragua. There, the natives learned about the â€Å"rich kingdoms† (Mayan civilization, and perhaps even the Inca Empire) and the â€Å"great sea† (Pacific Ocean), which lies further west, but despite strenuous attempts failed to find a water passage to the reservoir. Having lost two of the four ships, resigned to return to Cuba, then to Jamaica. There he was forced to settle the remaining ships aground. Materials originating in the damaged ships were used for the construction of fortified settlements. One of the companions of Columbus, Diego Mendez, the Indian boats set off for help survivors. But it was only after months wandering managed to get to Haiti, where he brought help. In the meantime Columbus was seriously ill and in such condition were transported him to Spain, where he arrived November 25, 1504. Summary of accomplishments of Christopher Columbus Given what Columbus has to say that the end of his life was tragic. After returning from the expedition moved to fourth place Vailadolid seriously ill, and having almost the status of a beggar. He died on May 20, 1506 was actually not knowing that he discovered America. He was convinced that came to Japan, to China, to India, and the mainland, which he saw during the third expedition he considered the biblical paradise. Meanwhile, the Portuguese and Spaniards, and realized that Columbus did not reach India, and discovered a new land. Another version of the last years of his life of Columbus presents a mysterious manuscript of Puri, according to which Columbus had died many years later and still take one-fifth trip to the West Indies. The authenticity of this source is given, however, questioned by most scholars Ferdinand Magellan (port. Fernao de Magalhaes, Spanish. Fernando de Magallanes, born. In the spring of 1480, as amended. April 27, 1521) – Portuguese sailor in the service of the Spanish maritime explorer and adventurer. He called the Pacific Ocean (Pacific). September 20, 1519 set out from Portugal by the western, or by the Atlantic Ocean to the Spice Islands in the Malay Archipelago. The expedition, which sailed under his command as the first circumnavigated the Earth. He died on April 27 killed by the inhabitants of the island of Mactan in the Philippine Archipelago Christopher Columbus (born 25 August or 31 October 1451 in Genoa (Italy) – died. May 20, 1506 in Valladolid, cat Cristofor Colom, owned by Cristoforo Colombo, Spanish. Cristobal Colon) – European sailor and navigator (probably Catalan by recent discoveries), captain of the expedition, which flowed on the three ships Santa Maria, Nina and Pinta under the flag of Castile in search of the western sea route to India, as the first in the history of geographical discoveries of modern beat tropical Atlantic Ocean and 12 October 1492 reached the West Indies (Antilles ) off the coast of America – the continent at that time unknown in Europe. Was appointed as admiral and made the first governor of the Spanish colonies in Central America, the organizer and master of four transatlantic discovery expeditions from Spain to America. Diaz used the discovery of Vasco da Gama. In 1497 another expedition was launched. Da Gama sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and headed towards Asia. Docked in the port of Calicut in India. Returned to the country in 1499 along with a large cargo of gold and spices. The country welcomed him enthusiastically. Maritime route to India became a reality. No wonder that the success of this expedition had a big impact naorganizowanie next. Henry the Navigator Portugal at least because of its location lent itself perfectly to the base for ocean expeditions. Despite the advantages of geographical location odegralaby probably not such a role in the great geographical discoveries, if not enthusiasm and dedication to Prince Henry (1394-1460) Henry called Sailor. After the conquest by the Portuguese in 1415 On the Moroccan coast Ceutry Henry was convinced that further expansion in Africa will bring great benefits. Counting on profits from trading gold, slaves, ivory, and pepper. With his support along the western coast of Cape Sangres organized a sort of database connection with the research center, where he collected all the geographical and navigational data and worked on the construction of sailing ships. For seventy years the Portuguese sailing ships were moving farther and farther south along the African coast, reaching successive headlands: Nun, Bojador, Blanco and 1445 Green Cape. During these expeditions the Portuguese discovered and colonized offshore islands and archipelagos – Madeira, the Canary Islands, Cape Verde. They assumed a fortified factories on the coast. And as it turned out that gold is less in Africa than they hoped, they took a more profitable procedere, the slave trade. EXPEDITIONS: WYPRARY PORTUGUESE: -Henry the Navigator – Azores, Canary Islands, Cape Verde, crossed the equator in 1471r. , -Bartholomew Diaz – 1488r . – Busz Cape (Cape of Good Hope), Vasco da Gamma– the road to India along the coast of Africa (1497-1498), SPANISH EXPEDITION: Christopher Columbus – the discovery of America (12. 10. 1942r), Hispaniola (Haiti), Cuba and others (1492), Lesser Antilles, the Coast of Central America and South America (1493-1503); -Amerigo Vespucci – realized that America is a new continent (from his name, name); -Ferdinand Magellan – (1519-1522) circumnavigation of the Earth (Magellan Strait, Pacific Ocean, Philippines, Borneo) – died in 1521r. In the Philippines, an expedition Sebastian del Cano finished; – Francis Drake (English) – and the circumnavigation of South America (the world); CIVILIZATIONS AND SOUTH CENTRAL AMERICA: Maya: V w. n. e. – The beginnings of civilization in the areas of Central America (Yucatan plw. ) with its capital in Majapan; Economy: -Wypaleniskowa (incandescent), -Grown: beans, wheat, -Craft, art, the pyramid; -Religion based on the sun-god cults, rites – human sacrifice; -Totalitarian power, absolute, hereditary; -The principal adviser to the ruler – the high priest; -Did not know the wheel or arc; -Calendar (365 days divided into 18 months); -Developed astronomy; -Know the time (to understand this concept) decimal system; Were aware of the layout of digits; The Aztecs: The thirteenth century – the beginnings of civilization in the areas of Mexico today, with its capital in Tenochtitlan; -Developed economy; -Grown: tomatoes, cotton, cocoa; -Money: cocoa beans or golden sand; -Tools more advanced than the Mayans; -Construction: the temples; -Ruler chosen from among the administrative units; -Bloody rituals, wor ship of the sun: 1489 – 250 thousand were killed. people as victims of ritual, such as skinned, pulling beating hearts; -Took over the Mayan calendar; Incas: Fifteenth century origins of civilization in the areas of Peru; -Cult of the sun and moon; -A highly developed economy, -Machu Picchu, -Crafts (ornaments of gold); -Totalitarian state, absolute power; -The interests of the subordinated interests of the state; -Residents could not travel to other parts of the country; Courier-Mail (16 thousand. Km of roads) Knotted-letter; -Developed surgery and herbal medicine, hypnosis; 1519r. – Hispanic – Cortez Aztec civilization znieszczenie; XVI – the destruction of the Incas – Izarro;